Film Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Film - Essay Example There are very rare politically charged films that are found today and the reason for that is because according to ‘USA today’ analysis, 26 movies that were released in the past 20 years and which had politically charged theme only four films did a business of over $100 million and nearly two-thirds did a business less than $50 million. But apart from these statistics, directors apart from Michael Moore are still trying for politically charged movies such as ‘Lions for lambs’, a Robert Redford’s movie which highlights the US involvement in Iraq and Afghanistan. Other example includes the movie of Jolie’s Bosnian, ‘In the land of blood and honey’ (DeBarros and Bowles). The genre of films that are politically charged other than the documentaries include a suspense drama ‘Betrayed’ and ‘The zookeeper’. The musical film includes ‘School daze’ and the epic include ‘Syriana’ which have a politically-charged themes. Recently there had been a fiction film on a politically charged theme, ‘Route Irish’ and ‘the day the Earth stood still’. These films cover the social issues as well as political issues (DeBarros and Bowles). The cultural and societal change has made a differentiation in the present world and the spirit of sixties. Recent films on politically charged theme prove that directors are still trying to come up with the films of every genre to highlight the political issues. DeBarros, A and S Bowles. "Movie fans vote no on politically-charged films." 11 July 2007. http://www.usatoday.com. 20 March 2012

How has the internet and social media changed our society Essay

How has the internet and social media changed our society - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that the internet and social media has played a great part in transforming people’s life and making it be much easier and worth living it. In about 20 years ago, very few people had ever heard of the name internet if there were any. In 1991, if a person was asked to say what a domain name is, they could have looked at the one asking in a blank face. All that has changed since the internet was discovered. People use the internet services each and every day in their activities, which include online banking and communicating with their friends. Social media was launched about nine years ago. Social media has also changed the way people live to a better way since people can share their problems with their friends and get comfort and encouragement. The Internet can be considered as one of the greatest inventions that have been witnessed in our generation. This has prompted some people to claim that the internet has ushered in an important new revolution which they claim that is as important as the industrial revolution. The Internet has altered the way people communicate with each other, how people shop and how they get their information. The internet influence has spread far beyond the online world confines which have affected many aspects of the lives we live. One of the main ways the internet has transformed our lives is by giving us an access to any information that we need. It has helped in opening up a world of possibilities where information can be shared. Before internet was invented, students had a lot of difficulties doing their research since they had to do it in the library. That is not the case in the internet era since the information that the students want is right at their fingertips. There are search engines in the interne that have ready information that the students and other researchers look for. These search engines includes Google and Yahoo search engines (Golden 2010). The Google website is on e of the most successful sites which tend to be the most visited site and the leader in a market that is very competitive. Google has a big coverage and a high speed of results that makes it easier for the researchers. Internet has made the world to be seen as a global village. Internet has helped in eliminating communication barrier that is caused by geographical distance (Golden 2010). Through the social media sites, one can have friends from all over the world, from as far from Zimbabwe to China. Internet has also helped in growing of businesses. This is by having devices like the dedicated serves which allows the offices to remain connected every time. It has also made shopping easier which can nowadays been done online (Lyn Gorman and David McLean,2009). This has made the whole world to look like a normal shopping mall, where someone can buy dresses from Paris and designer shoes from London. Internet has also made banking easier, where one can bank online and manage their finances without having to go to the banking hall each and every time they need the banking services. In early days, searching for jobs was a difficult task where one could only find jobs from the local newspaper and the recruitment agencies (Dijck 2013). . This has however changed thanks to internet as one can now search for jobs online. Talking of jobs, internet has helped many people by giving them an opportunity to work on the comfort of their homes. This is through the online jobs where one can earn with their pajamas on. This is an easier way to work, where one becomes his or her own boss, meaning that they do not experience the wrath of the bosses as other workers do. However, the greatest gift that is brought by the revolution that internet has experienced is education, where a person can learn everywhere by having online classes (Golde

A cultural analysis of Greece Essay Example for Free

A cultural analysis of Greece Essay This paper presents a cultural analysis of Greece and how this translates into the countrys business practices. The importance in such profiling can be seen in the emergence of many cross-cultural studies that aim to come up with an effective theoretical framework that guides international companies to relate to other companies from different countries with different cultures. One of these frameworks was formulated by a series of national studies conducted by Hofstede in which the author identified cultures according to five indices. Basically, Hofstedes approach presents that culture can be described as a set of characteristics ingrained or wired-in to the brains and the psyche of the members of a particular society thereby affecting behavior. With such understanding according to national cultures, cross-cultural managers can therefore make use of this information that can serve as a basis for cross-cultural and international initiatives of the organization. In application, this paper examines Greece according to Hofstedes five dimensions and how this translates into the countrys business culture; this paper then compares this with the business culture in the United States. The conclusion then leads to the identification of the different points of compatibility and conflict, and the areas which the Greek and the American business cultures can reconcile for a more successful business communications and relations. Global Business Cultural Analysis: Greece I. Section One Introduction Communication plays an important role in any cross-cultural relations, and in the aspect of business, communication in the international context spans beyond language and includes protocols, perceptions and other elements pertaining to business practices. According to Hendon, Hendon and Herbig (1996), the challenge is that although two or more parties are trying to reach an agreement aiming to serve each others interests, cultural factors whether in terms practice and perception significantly contribute to the processing of information that would lead to either the success or the failure of the negotiations or the management strategy should international companies decide to operate together. As Hendon, et al. (1996) pointed out, cultural aspects influence managers, thereby affecting their behavior; this also reflects at the organizational level thereby the degree of the embodiment of the national culture of these companies is constantly present. Cross-cultural issues have become crucial given that more and more businesses are taking advantage of the opportunities brought by globalization. One of the issues that emerged from this is that there was an identified potential point of conflict based on the precept that the differences in the values of the different groups may lead to problems, thereby jeopardizing the advantages offered by the global and international markets (Fontaine, 2007). As a result, international organizations have invested in cross-cultural management initiatives in order to create the most effective approach should the company reaches the point of venturing into foreign operations or cross-cultural negotiations. In addition to the organizational dimension in cross-cultural issues are the elements that can further influence the operations of any business. Kanungo (2006) identified that globalization ha also created a significant impact to the consumers behavior now that they are aware of the strong global forces; technological innovation; and the environment. These elements do not only represent modifications in terms of the markets and the societies global businesses cater to but also the potential overall shift and cultural perceptions that resonate at various levels, from the individual to the organizational behaviors. Which is why given that globalization has become a phenomenon that represents present-day reality (Steger, 2003), even companies who are not internationalized are still subject to many global forces such as buying or selling their supplies from sources overseas. It is also possible that the company may have to work with a foreign employee or a worker from a different cultural background. In any case, the instances of a cultural add-on has become more and more regular (Berger, 1998, 124). However, it is important to look at the many theoretical foundations on cross-cultural studies, especially as to how national cultures are perceived as an important influence in organizational and management behavior. There is one distinctive studies that can be considered to have created a substantial buzz in the entire context of cross-cultural studies: Geert Hofstedes four dimensions, which would later add another component. Hofstedes studies gave way to conclusions that would help in the different approaches towards understanding different cultures, and how these can also create effects at individual, organizational and national levels. Hofstedes Four Dimensions One of the most commonly used model in cross-cultural studies is Hofstedes four dimensions; these dimensions emerged from Hofstedes studies on 40 different countries in which he identified four major prevailing factors in terms of the cultural aspect (Bjerke, 1998): ? Power distance ? Uncertainty avoidance ? Individualism/collectivism ? Masculinity/femininity In order to understand these four dimensions, it is important to look at how Hofstede views culture and how this plays a role in global business applications. Hofstede is renowned for his research on differences among countries in terms of their culture and how these differences are essential. Hofstede operated based on the concept that comparisons among cultures can play a significant role in the making the right decisions based on the acquired information about other cultures; this is deemed helpful when it comes to making negotiations and even designing business strategies should companies decide to enter a foreign market. Hence, Hofstedes works have been founded on how the differences of these cultures are influential to behavior across may social levels. Hofstedes dimensions tend to generalize groups, hence, for instance, multicultural nations are taken as a singular culture (Fontaine, 2007). The four dimensions Hofstede formulated are the main indicators that can identify the points of similarities and differences across these many national cultures (Vinken, Soeters Ester, 2004). His studies on many national cultures have therefore served as a reference point among many cross-cultural managers. Hofstedes approach is known to adapt a more scientific approach as he argued that cultures can be measured and analyzed (Hofstede, Neuijen, Ohavy Sanders, 1990); such can be seen not only in his database which analyzed countries according to their measures in power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism/collectivism, and masculinity/femininity but also in terms of how these factors can impact many organizational tasks such as business negotiations. Culture is therefore an important indicator of behavior and at the same time, it acts as a binding force that defines a group, a society or a region. The four dimensions Hofstede identified are based on how a culture can be also defined according to relations, attitudes and values; in specific contexts, it can be observed that these four dimensions that pertain to Hofstedes definition of culture the programming of the mind that differentiates one group of another (as cited in Fontaine, 2007, 125) presents a predictable framework of characteristics. A fifth dimension was also introduced by Hofstede by including Confucian framework to his dimension, and he identified this as the long term/short term orientation. The long term/short term orientation, a recent addition to Hofstede/s dimension, was founded on the perceptions of time, and how this can affect the behavior of people. This dimension was based on the Confucian orientation with respect to past, present and future, and for Hofstede, this fifth dimension can reflect a societys perception of time, especially as to how this affects their perseverance and regard for values, and how societies also wish to command respect and gain stability (Jacob, 2005). This orientation is seen as an important component as this can reflect how some people can act as based on their expectations with respect to time, such as, for instance, whether their actions are motivated by long-term causes or their short-term goals. The power distance aspect refers to a cultures orientation towards authority. This orientation includes how people understand power and how power works in their communities. With this component, power distance serves as an indicator of equality such as whether some cultures tend to be more democratic or practices a great amount of inequality (Hofstede, 2001). Another index identified by Hofstede (2001) is the uncertainty avoidance. Generally, this refers to how society can tolerate uncertainty. This therefore shows how a culture may be more comfortable in a more structured and rational framework because the tolerance of ambiguity is low whereas some societies may tend to live in the uncertainty, hence, their systems do not adhere to strict rules. Individualism/collectivism pertains to how a culture tend to be more individualist and autonomous or the spirit of the collective fills the members of its society (Hofstede, 2001). In the former, there is a greater sense of independence because the individual is encouraged to think for himself or herself. A collectivist culture, its opposite, tends to have a greater degree of influence according to the social or cultural psyche and norm. Although individuals can be said to initially come from defined groups such as families, the degree of cohesion across social levels differs from one culture to the next. Last but not the least, the masculinity/femininity index measures gender roles in a culture, especially as to how each of these genders are positioned in the society. The values among these two genders are among the fundamental elements in any society because one tends to dominate the other, if not, the attempt to equalize roles can be said to be also present in some cultures (Hofstede, 2001). In addition to the aspect of the relevance of power in these roles, this indicator also describes whether the country is masculine or feminine; the former associates the culture as more assertive and competitive, thereby embodying the male characteristics whereas feminine cultures are viewed as caring and more modest. The strength of Hofstedes approach is that the study and the gathered data have come up with a set of information that generally describes the national cultures thereby demonstrating a general sense how people in a certain country can be expected to behave. The five dimensions have served as an important framework and Hofstedes model has served many nation-level researches especially as to how the applicability of his collected data can be regarded to be valid at a certain point (Smith, 2006). However, the model is not without any criticisms as this brings the issue on how many dimensions must be used as a means to measure culture (Smith, 2006). Another study conducted by Blodgett, Bakir and Rose (2008) that the model has limitations especially as to its validity among individuals. From this, it can be gathered that applicability of Hofstedes framework mainly gives a good reference for a cultural overview of nation, but in more specific terms, there is still some debate as to the design of a more effective cross-cultural analysis model. II. Section Two Greek Culture: an Overview Greece can be easily associated with its glory during the antiquity, with the country immersed in a rich culture of intelligence and might, in addition to the production of several works of art and architecture that can be considered to still have an influence in the modern world. Hence, Greece has always had the impression of classicism, especially with the mark left by Hellenism in the world and Greek history transcending fact and has become an interesting subject for literary works. From political thought to mythology, Greek as a culture remains to be an object of fascination, especially as it has founded an important definition where the Western world begins in this Mediterranean archipelago. Culture can be basically defined through customs and traditions, and in Greece, albeit its development into modernity, has maintained a strong grasp for tradition; this tradition is defined by the roles played by religion and paganism in the country. Greece is dominantly Orthodox Christian although some variations of the faith, as determined by paganistic influences, can be seen to be present and also vary from island to island. This is why Greek culture is generally regarded to have a higher degree of mixed beliefs and that Greeks also tend to be superstitious (Buxton, 1999). Early Greek civilization has demonstrated a significant amount of intellect yet at the same time, the society was also driven by its mythological past. Such combination can be seen to present an attempt to balance myth and reason, and in modern Greece, this can be seen to have developed as modern Greek society remains to take pride in its past through the continuous presence of its customs and traditions, yet at the same time, modern Greek culture has demonstrated significant social changes that have take place in the last century. This is discussed by Mouzelis (1978) who mentioned how societal values remain to be dictated by its core values, and these core values, evidently, play a significant role in the definition of a societys culture. The economy, in the past centuries, has created a significant impact to the social development of any society, and Greece, as it moved on to the modern times, had adapted to these changes. In the social context, Greece had demonstrated the ability to adjust to these new economic demands, and its society, inevitably, has redefined social classes. Its economy also started to redefine itself especially as to how it would define its role in the modern world. All in all, the modernization of Greece has created a degree of impact to its modern culture, but interestingly, Greek culture has strongly maintained what it has always been. As previously mentioned Greek culture has been distinct in terms of the roles religion plays in the lives of the people; this religion fuses the more organized leanings of the Christian Orthodox Church and the more paganistic or mythical practices that many Greeks still practice today. In addition to customs and traditions, Greek culture has maintained its strong identity across many cultural facets, from its art, music, food and wine. The Greek people has demonstrated a strong sense of resilience considering the number of wars they had to endure in the modern times. These wars include its conflict with the Ottomans in which the country fell under rule for a long time, the Balkan Wars, the First World War, and the Greco-Turkish wars. The country also fell under military dictatorship from 1967-1974. With their wounded past, the Greek people had redeveloped a strong national character that had adapted to the realities they faced, especially as Greeces glory would seem to be stuck more in the past and the modernity seems to have favored more the Western nations (Chilton, Dubin, Edwards, Garvey, Fisher, Ellingham, 2008). Interestingly, as Greece would struggle to find its place in the modern world, the Greek society and the people had gone through periods of diaspora in order to escape the conflicts at home. Those who were left behind would be stuck in the chaos of the country in which the economy would find a hard time adjusting to the greater powers coming from the western world, more specifically Europe. The Greek people experienced lack of opportunities in addition to poverty, especially as the country would prove to lack in enough economic resourcefulness until recently. Greece, for a significantly portion of the 20th century, was under-developed, but it was not until in the 1980s that the country would start to catch up and become more integrated with the rest of Europe (Chilton, et al. , 2008) There are some interesting factors in Greek culture that can be regarded to have influenced attitudes of its people. One of these concepts is filotimo. Although hard to translate, filotimo generally refers to the Greeks love for deep honor that they should possess; this goes well with anther important Greek characteristic of integrity which is about behaving as an upright individual. Although a sense of deep honor, as a translation, does not provide enough interpretation of the concept, filotimo can be considered to refer to a character that is highly desirable, but basically, it can be associated with a sense of self who is intrinsically good (Makedon, 1995). In addition to the concept of filotimo, modern Greece had emerged with additional cultural concepts in terms of character, and these are leventia and palikaria. Leventia refers to a sense of manly excellence thereby emphasizing the importance of having certain male characteristics. Leventia is paired with palikaria which also refers to the same meaning. As pair, possessing or being leventia and/or palikaria is about the ability to survive through hard times, especially if the individual or the family has been subject to a critical amount of duress. Having leventia and palikaria can gain an individual substantial admiration from those around him because of the display of a strong sense of self as seen in courage or proactiveness that addresses the source of any problem (Makedon, 1995). Last but not the least, albeit its painful periods of oppression, the Greek people have a great amount of love towards freedom. The love for liberty has always been a Greek characteristic, as seen from the ancient Greek civilization to the modern Greek society. Many themes in the Greek arts have portrayed the importance of freedom, and evidently, as the cradle of democracy, Greek culture had long wanted to fight oppression and aimed for a more liberal and democratic society in which they get to possess a certain amount of freedom despite the restrictions posed upon them (Makedon, 1995). Generally, these characteristics show how modern Greece have managed an important element of its identity, and that is its Orthodox church; however, despite the practice of orthodoxy, this aspect of freedom is practiced in such a way that the Greek people remains to have an open mind towards its paganistic past. In a way, the Greek culture can be regarded to have managed to lessen the conflict between mythos and logos, and today, the Greek people has been finding ways to make room for the modern and how it fits to its long standing tradition. Greek Business Culture Studies on the Greek business culture has had references to Hofstedes cultural framework. In terms of the scores of Greece according to Hofstedes four dimensions, Greece has the following measures in these four indices (Hofstede, 2001): ? Power distance index: 63 ? Individualism: 35 ? Masculinity: 57 ? Uncertainty avoidance index: 112 In terms of Greeces score in the power distance index, this score shows how its people, according to Hofstedes framework, demonstrates the emergence of the social classes in Greek society. This is to say that people are aware of the powers that are present in the society and they know their place with respect to that power. The score of the country in this index can be considered to be average, hence, demonstrating that although people do recognize the presence of inequalities in its society, they see the presence of means to get over certain barriers. The median score for this index is 55, and with Greece at 63, the amount of inequality is above average yet not as drastic as compared to other countries. Basically, this shows how hierarchy plays in the society which can be considered as a paradox considering the Greeks love for liberty and democracy. In a sense, such score shows how the Greeks have embraced reality and that certain powers have created a strong influence in the country. The next score shows that the country has lower measures of individualism thereby showing that Greece is a highly collective society. This shows how Greeks have a strong regard for family and community, and how individuals are strongly influenced by their environment. Kessapidou and Varsakelis (2002) mentioned that when Greeks enter an organization, there is already the expectation that the Greek employee expects to work for this company for the rest of his or her life, and at the same time, in exchange for this loyalty, they expect that the firm will also look after their family. The next indicator is masculinity, and Greece scored slightly above the global average of 50 (Hofstede, 2001). This is an interesting score as generally, the Greek society has demonstrated the strong male influence in terms of their position in the family and the society. The roles between males and females have been regarded to be also more distinctive, in which case the women know their positions and the limits of their power and influence. The uncertainty avoidance index shows the highest score for Greece, and based on this, there are many rules that prevail in the Greek society. Again, this is an interesting score because this contradicts the Greeks love for freedom, but then again, such rules and restrictions may have brought the Greek people to be hungry for more liberty in its societies. The many bounds in Greek society can be seen in its history where the country went through oppression through foreign occupancy and dictatorship. Overall, as employees, Kessapidou and Varsakelis (2002) discussed the characteristics of Greek employees, as follows (273): For Greek people, the working culture is based on sense of honour, dignity, loyalty, and sense of duty reflected in the Greek word filotimo which is similar to the concept of face as reported for China in these societies, filotimo or face becomes an asset for organizations. In cases, however, where expectations are not met, the personnel can be alienated. From the results of Hofstedes study, Greece can be summarized as high power distance, strong uncertainty avoidance, collectivistic and masculine (Joiner, 2001, 232). This profile, as translated into Greeces business culture, strongly demonstrates its association with societal values. According to Hofstede (2001), among the four indicators in his cultural model, the most relevant in the aspect of organizational design can be attributed to power distance and uncertainty avoidance which is why these factors are important in assessing the relationship of national cultures and the organization. In the organizational context, the Greek business culture shows a strong sense of hierarchy and the partenalistic relations that exist in Greek companies; this is evident in the high score in the power distance. In further putting this with respect to Hofstedes description of this dimension, the Greek society as well in Greek organizations, there is the accepted presence of inequalities in terms of the distributio of power. The acceptance in human inequality, interestingly, may not fair well with the Greek fundamentals on democracy but apparently, such cultural characteristic is more of an indicator of a strong sense of respect towards authority (Joiner, 2001). Leadership is therefore emphasized in Greek organizations, and in business, there is much dependence on the companys leaders when it comes to making decisions. Such cultural factor can then be attributed to the historical development in Greece which, accoding to Psychogios and Szamosi (2007), lived in a society with the centralized Greek political system that highlights the powerful state and the large public sector (8). In terms of the reflection of Greeces high uncertainty avoidance index, many studies have actually revealed that groups with hih uncertainty avoidance index demonstrate a fear of making decisios, hence, the presence of many rules that can be easily referred to. In Greece, according to studies by Bartholomew (1995), Bourantas, et al. (199), among others (as cited in Joiner, 2001), fear of decision-making has been found among Greek managers and subordinates, hence, much of these activities are left to the upper management. There is indeed the influence of culture in terms of the business own practices. Although this may not be true in all cases, the general perception towards Greek businesses reflect how the business culture have its foundations according to its societal values, these values are which influenced by the countrys culture. III. Section Three In Comparison with the US Business Culture Based on Hofstedes cultural model, Greece scored high in power distance index, masculinity and uncertainty avoidance index, whereas it scored low in individualism. These scores translate to the Greek business culture of centralization, concentrated power, more distinct gender roles, and high reliance on the organizations to take care of the employees family. Greek employees are also found to possess the characteristics of loyalty, integrity and dignity, as guided by the concept of filotimo. In comparing this to the American culture, the contrasts can be immediately seen the differences in the scores Hofstede gave the United States (Hofstede, 2001). The US scored high in individualism, low in power distance index, uncertainty avoidance index, and long term orientation, whereas in terms of masculinity, the US scored above average. The similarities can be therefore seen in the masculinity aspect in which both shows that gender roles remain to be differentiated in the American business culture. However, the similarities end there. Based on the scores, the American culture can be described as highly individualistic, with a greater sense of equality and fewer rules thereby showing greater tolerance in new ideas and beliefs. Basically, the American business culture does embody these characteristics. As the country embraced capitalism and industrialization earlier than Greece, the countrys business culture tends to have a more progressive and liberal approach. There is a strong presence of market economy forces in the United States, and employees are also driven by the economic opportunitis presented to them. One of the important aspects in the American business culture is the presence of competition, and competition is present not only among businesses but among individuals as well (McCraw, 2000). Hence, unlike in Greece where a bulk of the important responsibilities are left to upper management, American organizations and their employees grab these opportunities to hold more responsibilities because it means more opportunities for them to gain better positions. Competitive is therefore a characteristic of the American business culture, and this makes sense according to the results of the scores of the United States according to Hofstedes model. Although these scores and comparisons between national and business cultures can be regarded to be applicable, it should be noted that the degree of relevance may not be true in all cases. In addition to the challenges as to the validity of Hofstedes model (Blodgett, et al. , 2008), there is also the case of change that can possibly take place at social and business levels. As discussed in the first section, the applicability is limited as to the relevance of national cultures to business cultures although the fundamentals of a national culture tends to become apparent generally. For instance, the Greek concept of filotimo can be considered to be true even at business levels, and at the same time, the collective spirit can be seen in how many Greek corporations are family-owned. Such is true in the case of the United States in terms of the masculunity scores. Although in some instances gender roles remain defined in the US, in the business world, more and more women have started to hold significant positions across many organizations. Therefore, the relevance of national culture perceptions are only true up to a certain extent but information such as those gathered by Hofstedes studies serve as useful references to the basics of the social and business dynamics in a country. IV. Section Four Opening an American Business in Greece Based on the scores in Hofstedes cultural framework, the USAs national culture distance from Greece is at 3. 47 according to 42 surveyed American firms in the country (Kessapidou Varsakelis, 2002). With this number, it can be assumed that there will be greater difficulty in the successful establishment of the American company in Greece; however, this may not be the case, and the same is true even if the company has a Greek affiliate. According to Kessapidou and Varsakalis (2002), the strength lies in the Greeks characteristic to be collective, hence, they tend to comply with the requirements of the company. In addition, the concept of filotimo can drive Greek employees to perform better, thereby filotimo, in a sense, serves as a source of competitiveness, which is compatible with the American busines culture. However, there may be some problems in terms of the management aspect between the American and the Greek managers, or the Greek managers needing to comply with the demands of American management practices. Although there are highly centralized American companies, the delegation of power and responsibility is one of an American companys assets, hence, should decisions need to be made, even some subordinates may step in and show a sense of leadership. This may intimidate Greek managers and employees, especially if the firm would have American employees working in the Greek operations. In addition, the Greek employees may think that the Americans are too aggressive and ambitious in the workplace, thereby possibly creating a rift among the employees. Hence, the recommendation is that prior to the establishment of the American operation in Greece, both sides need to be educated about the cultures they are about to encounter. Since that Greece is going to host the company, the American company needs to comply more with the Greek culture, but since it is the American company that is going to establish the business, the Greek employees and managers also need to

Aspergillus Fumigatus Identification and Molecular Character

Aspergillus Fumigatus Identification and Molecular Character IDENTIFICATION AND MOLECULAR CHARACTERIZATION OF Aspergillus fumigatus FROM SOIL R. V. Shalini, and Dr. K. Amutha ABSTRACT: Soil was collected, serially diluted and pure culture obtained; slant was prepared in potato dextrose agar and maintained throughout the study. Morphological, microscopical and macroscopically identification were carried out on the isolated organism. DNA was isolated from the 24 hour culture, for ITS-PCR amplification. DNA was amplified by mixing the template DNA (50nm) with the polymerase reaction buffer, dNTP mix, primers and Taq. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed in a total volume of 50Â µL reaction mixture. The PCR product was mixed with loading buffer (8Â µL) containing 0.025% bromophenol blue, 40% w/v sucrose in water and then loaded in 2% agarose gel with 0.1% of ethidium bromide and the amplified product was visualized under a UV trans illuminator for further examination. The PCR products were finally sequenced using the help of an automated DNA sequencer at progen Ltd (Salem, India) and analyzed with the BLAST program provided by the National Center f or Bio-technology information (NCBI) to confirm the fungal species. The current study demonstrates that DNA genome containing 18S rRNA has a high degree of analytical sensitivity and specificity (100%) for the detection of a wide range of fungi. OBJECTIVE: To isolate, identify and characterize Aspergillus fumigatus using molecular biological methods. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The soil was collected from different places, pooled together allowed to be dried at room temperature. The morphology based identification of Aspergillus was done which includes the size, shape, colour, ornamentation of spore and mode of attachment. Unfortunately a lot of difficulties arose for phenotypical identification of this fungus due to its unstable characteristics. Comparatively a DNA sequence-based identification format appeared to be the most promising in terms of its speed, ease, objectivity and reliability for species identification. RESULTS: The preliminary morphology based studies showed the isolated fungi as a species of aspergillus.However after the DNA isolation followed by sequencing it was concluded that the particular species identified as Aspergillus was Aspergillus fumigatus. KEY WORDS: Aspergillus, serial dilution, DNA, Sequenced. INTRODUCTION: The presence of organic matter in the soil affects the quantity and quality of microbes in the soil. The development of micro fungi in the soil is favoured by soils having acidic reaction and aerobic condition which is likely present in the soil. However the amount of degradation in the soil is brought about by the organisms present in the soil. 1The rate at which the organic matter is decomposed is inter related with soil microbes. (Arunachalam et al., 1997). Microorganisms come in various sizes and shapes and is determined by the soil ph., temperature, available moisture, degree of aeration, availability of nutrients in the soil etc. The genus of spore forming fungi is found worldwide out of which Aspergillus is the most dominant species and is ubiquitoes.Out of that 95% is occupied by Aspergillus fumigatus. The other pathogenic forms of Aspergillus species are Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus nidulans, Aspergillus terreus etc. This fungi exists only in mycelial f orm, and is thermo tolerant capable of growing at temperatures between 15-53Â °c.Being a spore producing fungi the spores gets dispersed by wind in the atmosphere. 2Aspergillus fumigatus is the most common among all the airborne saprophytic fungal pathogens in immune compromised patients mostly in developed countries (Latge, 1999). It is the main pathogenic agent of various diseases caused in humans including invasive pulmonary aspergillosis, aspergilloma and allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (Tomee van der Werf, 2001) – the former is a frequent cause death in immune compromised patients. The possession of different virulent traits gives A. fumigatus the ability to cause these diseases. It is a known fact that other members of the genus Aspergillus are either less pathogenic or non- pathogenic. Identification of the most common and important species remains problematic due to the variability in the phenotypic characters. However a validated and a careful approach of phenotypic classification (taxonomy) together with phylogenetic treatment of DNA sequence data is a prerequisite for a reliable and a rapid identification. In our inve stigation we used the molecular techniques (sequencing) for the reliable identification rather the identification based on their microscopic and few physiological features. MATERIALS METHODS: Collection of soil samples: Soil samples were collected from different places (in and around Chengalpattu). The surface deposits were removed to a depth of about 10 cm and the exposed soil was collected to a depth of 2-3cm. The collected soil samples were stored in zip locked covers stored in refrigerator temperature for further analysis. The collected soil samples were passed through a sieve to remove the stones and other impurities. Isolation of fungi: The glass wares were sterilized in an autoclave to a temperature of 120Â °c for twenty minutes. The chemicals were of analytical grade (Himedia). The method used for the isolation of fungi from soil was serial dilution method. 1 gm of soil was weighed and mixed in 10ml of double distilled sterile water. This was used for preparing serial dilutions. 1 ml of the final dilution (10-6 ) was pipetted into the prepared potato dextrose agar media (PDA) amended with a suitable antibiotic Chloramphenicol (12mg/100ml). The plates were incubated at 30Â °c for about seven days. Fungi that appeared on petriplates were isolated. The isolates were picked up based on apparent dissimilarity of cultural characteristics and purified. The purified isolates were identified according to the genera on the basis of cultural characteristics such as nature of growth, spore colour, and pigment production, and on morphological characteristics of mycelia and fruiting bodies (Domsch etal., 1980; Raper and Fenne ll 1965) and maintained in agar slants for future use3. Isolation of DNA: Genomic DNA was extracted from 24 hour old culture. Measured 100 micro gram of mycelium into a sterile 1.5- micro centrifuge tube. Simultaneously ground 1 microgram of dried (vacuum filter mycelium first) in a mortar and pestle treated with liquid nitrogen 5-6 times. Poured the frozen powder into the Eppendorf tube. Added 660 750 Â µl of lysis buffer and 10 Â µl of B-mercaptor.Vortexed the mixture for a few seconds. And Incubated at 65Â °C for 1 hour. Used a water bath for incubation. Centrifuged at a speed of 3400 rpm for 5 minutes at room temperature and aspirated out the top layer.Transfered the top aqueous layer into a fresh Eppendorf tube discarded the bottom layer. Measured out 700 Â µl of chloroform, isoamyl alcohol (24:1) into Eppendorf tube and adjusted the volume to meet a 1:1 ratio of aqueous phase.Vortexed the mixture for a few seconds. Centrifuged at a speed of 12000 rpm for 10 minutes at room temperature and aspirated out 550 600 Â µl of the top layer. Transfered the top aqueous layer into Eppendorf tube and discarded the bottom layer. Added 0.1volume of 3m potassium acetate and 0.7 volume of isopropanol. Mixed well by inverting the tube not by vortexing.Centrifuged for about 10 minutes and discarded the supernatant. Added 0.5 mL of ice cold ethanol (70% and inverted the tube gently, again it was centrifuged for about 5 minutes in a spinner) finally the pellets were resuspended in 100Â µl of TE buffer (PH-8). After further purification DNA was quantified spectrophotpmetrically and the quality was analyzed in 0.9% agorose gel. Amplification of 18srRNA by PCR: For ITS-PCR amplification, DNA was amplified by mixing the template DNA (50nm) with the polymerase reaction buffer, dNTP mix, primers and Taq polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed in a total volume of 50Â µL reaction mixture containing Primer (2Â µM/Â µL) 8.0Â µL 10X Buffer 5.0 Â µL 2mM dNTP Mix 5.0Â µL Taq DNA polymerase (5U/Â µL) 0.5Â µL Template DNA (50ng) 2.0Â µL Sterile distilled water 29.5Â µL Total volume 50.0Â µL PCR amplification condition: Amplification was carried out in a primus advanced gradient thermocycler. The PCR was programmed with an initial denaturing at 94Â °C for 5 min, followed by 30 cycles of denaturation at 94Â °c for 30 seconds, annealing at 61Â °c for 30 seconds, and extension at 70Â °c for 2 minutes and a final extension at 72Â °c for 7 minutes. The PCR product was mixed with loading buffer (8Â µL) containing 0.025% bromophenol blue, 40% w/v sucrose in water and then loaded in 2% agarose gel with 0.1% of ethidium bromide and the amplified product was visualized under a UV trans illuminator for further examination. (Sequencing) Sequencing of ITS region for identification of isolated fungi : Chosen Samples of the genomic DNA containing 18S rRNA were shortlisted for more specific species confirmation by using DNA sequencing. The sequenced PCR product was aligned with other isolate sequences from NCBI genbank for identification. The PCR products were finally sequenced using the help of an automated DNA sequencer at progen Ltd (Salem, India) and analyzed with the BLAST program provided by the National Center for Bio-technology information (NCBI) to confirm the fungal species. RESULTS: Macroscopic and Microscopic Analysis: Analysis of the isolated Aspergillus species showed variation in the colony colours, texture, and reverse side colours (table 1 and 2). The morphological microscopic and molecular characteristics showed that the isolate is Aspergillus fumigatus (details given in table 1and 2). Morphological characters of colony (table1) Characteristics Aspergillus fumigatus Surface colour Margins Reverse side Growth Green to dark green Entire Yellow Rapid Microscopic characteristics (table2) Characteristics Aspergillus fumigatus Hyphae Branched septate Conidiophore Present Vesicle Dome shaped Conidia Present Phialides Uniseriate Fruiting body Cleistothecia Fig A1 Fig A2 Morphological characterization of Aspergillus species on potato dextrose agar A1-Aspergillus fumigatus surface colour, A2-Reverse side of the colony. DNA sequencing of ITS region for identification of species: The species of fungi from the PCR sample was identified by DNA sequencing of the internally transcribed spacer (ITS) region of rRNA gene. Segments of the entire ITS regions, including partial 5.8S rRNA and internal transcribed spacer 2, complete sequence, 28S rRNA,partial sequence were amplified using the primer PGF04 5’-GGC ATC GGC C-3’. Amplification of the ITS region of strain Aspergillus fumigatus had a size of 1703bp. It was submitted to the NCBI and the accession number KC 119199 was received. M 1 2 Fig A3 represent the banding pattern of Aspergillus fumigatus from PCR reactions Lane M= Marker, Lane 1= Aspergillus fumigatus, lane 2=Aspergillus fumigatus. DISCUSSION: Detection of A. fumigatus is of great concern because it is a dangerous allergen associated with aspergillosis 5(Abraca et al., 1994; Schuster et al., 2002; Noonimabcet al.2009; Edwin et al., 2010; Gautam et al., 2011). This highlights the importance of correct identification and taxonomical differentiation between different species of Aspergillus. The taxonomy of Aspergillus has always been complex due to its great number of species (nearly 250), which have very few differences. The identification of different Aspergillus species, on the basis of their morphological characters (example, colony colours, and reverse side) is one of the oldest and most adopted methods. Some of the species of Aspergillus have the same morphological features which make it difficult to distinguish between them it is also a time consuming process and may not be accurate (Klich and Pitt, 1988; Samson et al., 2004)6. This shows that morphological and microscopical characters are not enough for fungal identification and it renders the need of molecular techniques for correct species identification. Molecular characterization on the other hand, is a rapid and a quick procedure which requires minimal handling of pathogens. It also helps in distinguishing morphologically, similar fungal species. Several similar studies on the application of PCR technology were used for the identification and detection of fungi, by using internal transcribed spacer (ITS) were already been studied and published7 by several scientist (Henson and French, 1993; Marek et al., 2003; Haughland et al., 2004; Druzhinina etal., 2005).. Many more such studies were also carried out very recently by God et and Munaut (2010) in the differentiation of Aspergillus flavus, A.parasiticus, A.tamarii and A.nomius by PCR-RAPD markers. Similarly, Leema et al. (2010) confirmed the species A. flavus by verifying; using the molecular methods that is, by amplification of the internally transcribed spacer regions. By using the help of RAPD-PCR, 8Khan et al. (2007) studied diversity in various Aspergillus niger isolates sourc ed from pigeon pea fields .Several molecular techniques have been tested to classify different Aspergillus species like random amplification of polymorphic DNA (RAPD) (Yuan et al., 1995), the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region (Kumeda and Asao, 1996; Henry et al., 2000; Kumeda and Asao, 2001; Rigo et al., 2002) and the aflatoxin gene cluster (Chang et al., 1995; Watson et al., 1999; Tominaga et al., 2006). In this study care was taken to choose the genomic DNA containing 18sRNA specifics primers that were helpful in amplifying medically important fungi. The genomic DNA containing 18s rRNA was the right candidate for detection of fungus as it is a mutli-copy gene which evolves slowly and is conserved among fungi. The present study proves that the genomic DNA containing 18s rRNA based PCR is suitable for probing large range of medically significant fungi owing to its higher level of analytical sensitivity and specificity. CONCLUSION: In this present study we had shown that molecular techniques are rapid and best for identification of fungi than the traditional morphological methods for early diagnosis and treatment of fungal infections. The goal of our study was to identify a practical, quick, cheap, method for the identification of A. fumigatus, the most common of the Aspergillus pathogens. REFERENCES: Arunachalam K, Arunachalam A, Tripathi RS, Pandey HN. 1997 – Dynamics of microbial population during the gradation phase of a selectively logged subtropical humid forest in north east India. Tropical Ecology 38, 333–341. Sirida Youngchim,1,2 Rachael Morris-Jones,1 Roderick J. Hay3 and Andrew J. Hamilton1 Production of melanin by Aspergillus fumigatus Journal of Medical Microbiology 2004, 53, 175–181. Domsch, K.H.,Gams W. and Anderson T.H. 1980.Compendium of soil fungi, vol 1.IHW-Verlag,Eching.,Raper,K.B.andFennel,D.I.1965.The genus Aspergillus (Baltimore: Williams Wilkins). Ferrer C, Colom F, Frases S, Mulet E, Abad JL, Alio JL:Detection and identification of fungal pathogens by PCR and by ITS2 and 5.8S ribosomal DNA in eye infections. J ClinMicrobiol 2001, 39(8): 2873-2879. Abraca ML, Bragulat G, Cabanes FJ 1994. Ochratoxin A production by strains of Aspergillus flavus var. niger . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60:2650-2652. Klich MA, Pitt JI 1988. Differentiation of Aspergillus flavus from Aspergillus parasiticus and other closely related species.Trans. Br.Mycol. Soc.91:99-108. Henson J, French R 1993. The polymerase chain reaction and plant disease diagnosis. Ann. Rev. Phytopathol.31:81-109. Khan MR, Anwer MA, Mohiddin FA 2007. Molecular diversity in Aspergillus isolates collected from pigeonpea field in Aligarh region.Environ. Biol. Conserv. 12:59-64. Godet F, Munaut F 2010. Molecular strategy for identification in Aspergillus section flavi. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 304:157-168. Leema G, Kaliamurthy J, Geraldine J, Thomas PA 2010. Keratitis due to Aspergillus flavus: Clinical profile, molecular identification of fungal strains and detection of Aflotoxin production.Mol. Vision 6:843-854. Yuan G, Liu C, Chen C 1995. Differentiation of Aspergillus parasiticus from Aspergillus sojae by Random Amplification of Polymorphic DNA. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:2384-2387. Kumeda Y, Asao T 2001. Heteroduplex panel analysis a novel method for genetic identification of Aspergillus section flavi strains. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67:4084-4090. Chang PK, Ehrlich KC, Bhatnagar JD, Cleveland TE 1995. Increased expression of Aspergillus parasiticus aflR, encoding a sequence specific DNA-binding protein, relieves nitrate inhibition of aflatoxin biosynthesis. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:2372-2377.

Groupware Essay -- science

Groupware A powerful requirement for businesses to effectively compete in today’s global market place is the ability for collaboration between business units, work teams and individuals. The value of collaboration is its potential to contribute toward increasing productivity, reducing costs, growing profit and improve service or product quality (Alavi, M., 1994). Technology that has been designed to support collaborative group work is referred to as groupware. This impacts on the way people communicate with each other, the way people work and even the structure of an organization. Groupware are technology based tools that facilitate groups of geographically dispersed people to share knowledge and information using computer based resources (Dennis et al., 1996). These tools allow humans to collaborate on projects where members may contribute directly or anonymously (Nunamaker et al., 1991). Groupware includes the ability to send and receive data, emails, share personal calendars, hold video conferencing and workflow management (Kilmer, 1999). Kilmer, (1999 ) states that popular products that fit into this category include Lotus Notes, email, intranet, internet, electronic conferencing and other collaborative tools. Groupware allows for new organizational design and practices. It provides new potential for how work groups or teams can enhance their coordination when performing activities and assigned tasks. Groupware technology addresses the need for collaboration, human to human interaction and builds on the latest advances in information technology. The rapid development of groupware technology means the term is not clearly defined (Lloyd, P. 1994), essentially the term refers to any computer based technology that helps a group work better collaboratively over digital media (Lloyd, P. 1994). According to Ellis et al., (1991) groupware falls into many categories from simple to complex systems. Ellis et al., (1991), distinguish two main categories when viewing groupware; time space and application level categories. Time space groupware are those tools conceived to enhance communication and collaboration within a real time interaction. The scenarios which encompass this include same time/same place, same time/different place, different time/same place and different time/different place (Ellis et al., 1991). Groupware which are classified as s... ...Across Space, Time, and Organization with Technology, John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY. - Lloyd, P., 1994, Groupware in the 21st Century, Praeger, Westport, CT. - Maier, N, 1967, "Assets and liabilities of group problem solving: the need for an integrative function", Psychological Review, 74, 4, 239-49. - Nunamaker, J., Dennis, A., Valacich, J., Vogel, D., 1991, "Electronic meeting systems to support group work", Communications of the ACM, 34, 7, 40-61. - Pava, C, 1983, Managing New Office Technology, Free Press,, New York, NY. - SAP GLOBAL, 2005, http://www.sap.com/solutions/netweaver/enterpriseportal/featuresfunctions /knowledgemanagement.epx - Shulman, A.D, 1996, "Putting group information technology in its place: communication and good work group performance", Clegg, S.R, Hardy, C., Nord, W.R., Handbook of Organization Studies, Sage Publication,, London, 357-74. - Taylor, J.C, 1998, "Participative design: linking BPR and SAP with the STS approach", Journal of Organizational Management, 11, 13, 233-45. - Yen, D.C, Wen H.J, Binshan, L. and Chou, D.C. 1999, â€Å"Groupware: a strategic analysis and implementation†, Industrial Management & Data Systems 99/2 64–70

Scheele and Oxygen :: essays research papers

Oxygen Vital to life, a necessity to combustion, and the component of innumerable compounds, oxygen is by far one of the most important elements. Astoundingly, Oxygen makes up a fifth of our atmosphere, 49.5% of all compounds on Earth contain oxygen, makes up about 2/3 of our body, yet human kind has only know of it since 1977 (http://pearl1.lanl.gov/periodic/elements/8.html). Ironically, within a period of a couple of years, three different men had stumbled upon the vital element. Carl Wilhelm Scheele, a Swede, made the initial discovery. However, Joseph Priestly, the man generally attributed with the discovery on the basis of his works being published first, discovered it in 1774. Neither of them quite understood it though, and only a French man by the name of Antoine Lavoisier who would be the first to fully understand it and disprove the old à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“phlogistonà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? notion (Priestly Joseph 4). Nonetheless, Carl Wilhelm Scheele was still the first to discover oxygen, a disc overy that would be one of many in a rich life. William Scheeleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s life was one of humble beginnings. Born on December 19, 1742 he was one of a pack of 11 children. His formal training or education in science was of the bare minimum. By the age of fourteen, a firm by the name of Martin Anders Bauch in Gothenburg had accepted him as an apprentice as a pharmacist. This initial access to various chemicals, compounds, and books gave Wilhelm Scheele just he start he needed for beginning his career into chemistry. When the firm changed hands, Carl Wilhelm Scheele took a job with another company name KjellstrÃÆ' ¶m where, once again, he was provided the mean and permission to experiment. Scheele once again changed positions and moved to Stockholm where he continued in a pharmacy. Here his first discoveries were made (http://mattson.creighton.edu/History_Gas_Chemistry/Scheele.html). In 1769 with the help of a man named Anders John Retzius, Scheele isolated tartaric acid, a substance used on lenses, from cream of tartar (Tartaric Acid 1). Scheele made his big break however in 1770. Through various methods, Scheele was able to isolate oxygen. His discovery of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Fire Airà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? precipitated numerous awards including a membership to the Royal Academy of Sciences, a position never before, and not even to present day to be given to a pharmacist (http://mattson.creighton.edu/History_Gas_Chemistry/Scheele.html). His home town, in an effort to keep him, also found him a place to set up his pharmacy.

“Dune” by Frank Herbert and “Huckleberry Finn” by Mark Twain Essay

Oliver Wendell Holmes once said, â€Å"we do not read literature for improvement or instruction.† However, there are many reasons to disagree with Holmes’ conjecture; there is a great deal of literature that provides philosophical insight along with entertainment. The wisdom and education provided by books such as Mark Twain’s â€Å"Huckleberry Finn† and Frank Herbert’s â€Å"Dune† strongly contradicts Holmes’ view. â€Å"Huckleberry Finn† was a novel written two decades after slavery was abolished in the United States, yet it was set back in the time when slavery was abundant in the South. It has many instances of what could be perceived as racism, but the book is mostly against racism, mostly in its portrayal of Jim. â€Å"Huckleberry Finn† shows how Huck and Jim become friends throughout the course of the novel, showing that their friendship can transcend race, an idea revolutionary for its time. At a time when racial tensions were running high in the South, Twain’s book showed how a friendship between a white teenager and a black adult could be pure and authentic. While most adults in the book had many flaws, Jim is mostly compassionate, loyal and benevolent character. In fact, Jim is seen as more of a father figure to Huck than his own father was. When they undergo their adventure on the raft, Huck and Jim make a connection that was unheard of in those days between black and white men. This connection is shown by the line â€Å"I hadn’t had a bite to eat since yesterday, so Jim he got out some corn-dodgers and buttermilk, and pork and cabbage and greens-there ain’t nothing in the world so good, when it’s cooked right- and whilst I eat my supper we talked and had a good time†, which shows how much of a strong connection Huck and Jim really made. When Jim asks why a Frenchman can’t speak English, he simply mirrors the question of why a black man and a white man couldn’t be treated the same: â€Å"Is a Frenchman a man?† Huck’s change in attitude toward slavery over the course of the novel shows Twain’s true attitude toward slavery. At the beginning of the novel, Huck contemplates and even resolves to turn Jim into slavers, thinking that taking someone’s property is immoral. However, Huck’s attitude progressively changes throughout the novel; in Chapter 31 Huck says he would rather â€Å"go to hell† than turn Jim in. Jim’s longing for his family and the story about his dead daughter shows his humane side and shows that black men are no different from white men, thus they should not be treated differently. The novel â€Å"Dune† by Frank Herbert centers on a man named Paul Atreides and his struggle to gain back a planet that was given to him and brutally taken away by his longtime rivals. While the novel is one of science fiction’s best because of its plotline, the philosophical points made in the novel make it truly great. The novel uses religion as a driving force in politics at a time when religion was believed to be dying down. Another important revolutionary idea was the human control over ecology. The planet Dune was a desert wasteland, valuable only for its single resource: melange. Melange, a clear comparison to petroleum, was a resource harvestable only on Dune and was used in everything from prolonging life to powering spaceships for faster-than-light travel. People inevitably try to sculpt the planet to harvest this resource more efficiently, but run the risk of killing the sandworms, the producers of melange, and destroying the economy completely. However, the most important idea in the book is the concept of precognition, the ability to see into the future. The book shows it not as a positive quality, but as something that could ruin your life forever and make it a dull eternity; it poses the question â€Å"what is the point of living if you already know everything that will occur in your life?† Oliver Wendell Holmes said that we don’t read novels for instruction or improvement. However, I think that these two novels significantly oppose Holmes’ idea; they are not only for enjoyment, but they also contain a plethora of ideas that were revolutionary for their time. These works, among others, have provided inspiration and wisdom to countless readers. This is why most works are not simply for enjoyment, but also provide mental stimulation for those that seek it.